Conditional sentences – Introductio

Although most student grammars focus on four common patterns of conditional sentences or if-clauses which are often called zero, first, second and third conditionals, conditional sentences in English language have a variety of conditional forms and sentence structures.

Here are some of the most common uses of conditional sentences which will be discussed in detail later:

1. Uncertain events & situations

We use conditional sentences to talk about uncertain events and situations. 
Example:
Ask Mark if he is staying tonight. (He may or may not be staying)
If I see Nicky, I will give convey your message. (I may or may not see Nicky) 

2. Conditions

An if-clause can also refer to a condition – something which must happen first, so something else can happen.
Example:
If we can get there by tomorrow morning, we can have breakfast at Mark’s place.
I will go to market tomorrow if I am able to repair my car today.

3. If…then

We sometimes construct sentences with if…then to emphasize that one thing depends on another. But note that we do not use if…so in this way.
Example:
If he cannot walk, then she will have to help him. (NOT …so we will have to go and see her)
If Jennifer has no enough money, then we have to lend her some money.

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4. If meaning “if it is true”

Another common use of if is to mean “if it is true that” or if it is the case that”
Example:
If you were in New York, why didn’t you come and see us?
If it will help you, I will lend you some money 

5. Unlikely, imaginary or untrue situations

Past (or special) tenses can be used to give the idea that something is unlikely, imaginary or untrue.
Example:
If I married you, we would both be unhappy. (Past tense used to talk about an imaginary future situation).

Position of if clauses

Note that an if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause comes first, it is often separated by comma. Compare:

If you eat too much, you get fat.
You get fat if you eat too much. 

Zero, first, second & third conditionals

Most student grammars focus on four common patters with if which are often called zero, first, second and third conditionals as given below:

Zero conditional (used to talk about the general or scientific conditions which are always true)

If + present - infinitive

E.g. If you heat water, it boils. 

First conditional (used to talk about the future consequences of a specific event or situations)

If + present - will + infinitive

E.g. If we play tennis I will win. 

Second conditional (used to talk about unlikely, imaginary or untrue events or situations)

If + past – would + infinitive

E.g. If we played tennis, I would win. 

Third conditional (used to talk about things that didn't happened in the past and the consequence if they had happened)

If + past perfect – would have + past participle

E.g. If we had played tennis, I would have won. 

Although the the above four structures are useful to a beginner, it is important to realize that there are many different structures with if and that they may not be grouped into four main kinds as above.

As far as tenses are concerned, it is more accurate to distinguish two kinds of structures as;

1. If-clauses with ordinary tenses (including the so called first conditional) and

2. If-clauses with special tenses (including the so called second and third conditionals)

Conditional Sentences

Because conditional sentences are quite complex in both form and meaning, they are a problem for most learners of English. If you have a good understanding of the English tense system and of the modal auxiliaries, you will find it easier to understand and use conditional sentences. (The sentence you just read is a predictive conditional sentence.)

All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the same meaning:

If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream.

She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.

You have probably noticed that different teachers, textbooks, and Web sites sometimes explain the same thing in different ways. This seems to be especially true of conditional sentences. However, two different explanations can both be correct, especially if the difference is due to the fact that complicated material has been organized in different ways. This is often true of explanations of conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here conditional sentences are divided into three types based on their meanings: real, predictive, and imaginative conditional sentences.

A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.

1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never change, and they include present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.

Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:

If water boils, it turns to steam.

If water boils, it will turn to steam.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual activities:

If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.

If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day.

If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

These generalizations can also be expressed by using when or whenever instead of if:

When water boils, it turns to steam.

When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.

When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day. 

2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional sentences.

Real conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses. However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:

If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday.

If I can do it, anyone can do it.

if it is raining, the streets are getting wet.

If he was at school, he saw the accident.

If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday.

If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it.

if it is raining, the streets must be getting wet.

If he was at school, he must have seen the accident. 

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B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.

1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in the result clause. However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should, for example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.

2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:

If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail.

If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A in the class.

If George does well on the final exam, he may get an A in the class.

If Fred studies, he should pass the exam. 

---

C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for many learners of English because of the unusual relationship between form (the tenses used) and meaning.

In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; past perfect tense refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of English is that were (not was) is used with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional sentences.

Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or states.

1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical events or states have a past tense verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.

Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or future time):

If George had enough money, he would buy a new car.

If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present.

If she knew the answer, she would tell us.

(George probably does not have enough money; I probably will not win the lottery; she probably does not know the answer.)

2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did not happen in the past.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states have a past verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

If I were you, I would not do that.

If she studied for exams, she would get better grades.

If it were raining, the streets would be wet.

(I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t raining.) 

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-fact events or states have a past perfect verb in the if-clause and would + have + verb (or might or could + have + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

If George had had enough money, he would have bought a new car.

If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a present.

If she had known the answer, she would have told us.

(George did not have enough money; I did not win the lottery; she did not know the answer.)

Saurce :

http://faculty.deanza.edu/flemingjohn/stories/storyReader$18

http://www.conditionalsentences.org/

http://rahmatheryudhi.blogspot.com/

Pengertian Noun Clause

Noun clause adalah klausa yang berfungsi sebagai nomina. Karena fungsinya sebagai nomina, maka noun clause dapat menduduki posisi-posisi berikut:

1. Subjek kalimat (subject of a sentence)
2. Objek verba transitif (object of a transitive verb)
3. Objek preposisi (object of a preposition)
4. Pelengkap (complement)
5. Pemberi keterangan tambahan (noun in apposition)

Contoh Noun Clause : 


1. Noun Clause sebagai Subjek Kalimat ( subject of a sentence )

• What you said doesn’t convince me at all.
• How he becomes so rich makes people curious.
• What the salesman has said is untrue.
• That the world is round is a fact. 

2. Noun Clause sebagai Verba Transitif ( Object of a Transitive verb )

• I know what you mean.
• I don’t understand what he is talking about.
• He said that his son would study in Australia 

3. Noun Clause Sebagai Preposisi ( object of a Preposition )

• Please listen to what your teacher is saying.
• Budi pays full attention to how the native speaker is pronouncing the English word
• Be careful of what you’re doing. 

4. Noun Clause sebagai Pelengkap ( Completment )

• The good news is that the culprit has been put into the jail.
• This is what I want.
• That is what you need.

5. Noun Clause sebagai Pemberi Keterangan Tambahan ( Noun in Apposition )

• The idea that people can live without oxygen is unreasonable.

• The fact that Rudi always comes late doesn’t surprise me 

 http://aptyoo.blogspot.com/2011/04/pengertian-noun-clause.html
http://rahmatheryudhi.blogspot.com/

Pengertian dan Fungsi Adverbial Clause

Adverbial Clause

Adverb Clause terdiri dari dua kata yaitu “Adverb” and “Clause”
adverb adalah : kata keterangan yang menerangkan verb (kata kerja) dan adjective (kata sifat),
clause adalah : anak kalimat.

Jadi adverb clause adalah anak kalimat yang menerangkan kata sifat dan kata kerja dan berfungsi sebagai adverb.
Adverb clause adalah terdiri dari delapan macam: seperti: Adverb clause of time, Adverb clause of place, Adverb clause of number, Adverb clause of menner, adverb clause of reanson, adverb clause of result, adverb clause of condition, dan adverb clause of contrast. Rumus umum dan contoh adverb clause.

Subject + predicet + conj + subject + predicet.

Tapi bisa saja conjuntion di awal sesuai dengan kalimatnya.
Contoh:
- I met her when + was walking to school.
- As he was sick, he went to she doctor.
- I can’t go out because my mother is sick.
Jenis-Jenis Adverb Clause

1. Adverb Clause of Reanson
Adalah : sebuah anak kalimat yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan sebab atau alasan. Adverb clause of reason di awali dengan konjungsi (penghubungnya) adalah : as/ since/ because/ whereas/ on the ground that.

Example:
- Is I love you, I can do anything for you.
- Since she has a desire to marry, she discontinued her studing.
- I stopped the work because I was tired.
- Whereas I came late, My father punishet me.
- His teacher punishet him on the grand that, he came late.


2. Adverb Clause of Result
Adalah : sebuah anak kalimat yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan hasil perbuatan atau akibat. Adverb clause of result di awali dengan konjungsi so that, so + adjective + that, so + adverb + that, so.

Example:
- Nadhavi was so beautiful that I loved her at first sight.
- He studies so hard that many studienst like him.


3. Adverb Clause of Condition
Adalah : sebuah anak kalimat yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan kondisi. Adverb clause of condition di awali dengan konjungsi if/ unless/ whether/ provided that and so long as.

Example:
- If you help me, I shall be happy.
- Unless you tell her about your love, she won’t know it
- You must do this wheter, you like it or not
- I ean help you provide that you must follow my advice
- So long as you work hard, you have no problem with me

4. Adverb Clause of Contrast

Adverb Clause of Contrast adalah sebuah anak kalimat yang menerangkan bertentangan. Adverb Clause of Contrast diawali dengan konjungsi: although, eventh ough, though, whet eyer, no matter, however much, not with standing that.

Example:
a. I still no money although I worked hard
b. Eventhough hehates me, he lend me the bock
c. Though he is rice, he never give me the money
d. Whatever he has done, he is your father
e. No mather what she sald, I still love her
f. She will never succed however much he may try
g. He was not refreshed not with standing that he had spent 2 weeks leave

Fungsi Adverbial Clause :

1. Sentence Adverbs
2. Conjunctive Adverbs
3. Explanatory Adverbs
4. Relative dan Interrogative Adverbs
5. Exclamatory Adverbs

Pertama, Sentence adverbs (Kata keterangan kalimat)

Sentence adverb sering dianggap lebih menjelaskan keseluruhan kalimat daripada menjelaskan kata kerja (verb). Beberapa adverb berikut ini adalah sentence adverb :

a. fortunately

b. presumably

c. actually

d. obviously

e. evidently.

Meskipun dari segi bentuknya mirip dengan adverbs of manner, yaitu dengan menambahkan ly pada akhir descriptive adjective, namun dari segi fungsinya sentence adverb tadi merefleksikan 'pendapat / opini pembicara' daripada menjelaskan cara bagaimana melakukan sesuatu (dalam artian: adverbs of manner).

Contoh :

Fortunately, no one was hurt. = Untungnya, tidak ada orang yang luka.

Actually I have many problems = Sebenarnya saya punya banyak masalah.

Kedua, Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverb menghubungkan antara satu kalimat atau klausa dan atau mengawali sebuah kalimat. Artinya bahwa conjunctive adverb itu adalah kata keterangan yang berfungsi menghubungkan satu kalimat dengan kalimat lain seperti fungsi conjunction pada umumnya. Conjunctive adverb juga dikenal dengan istilah connective.

Beberapa kata berikut ini adalah salah satu contoh conjunctive adverb:

a. therefore

b. accordingly

c. moreover

d. besides

e. however

f. nevertheless

g. otherwise

h. then

i. in addition

dll.

Contoh

I have no money; therefore, I cannot buy this pencil. = saya tidak punya duit oleh karena itu saya tidak bisa membeli pensil ini.

Ketiga, Explanatory Adverbs

Explanatory adverb adalah adverbs (kata keterangan) yang berfungsi mengilustrasikan / menjelaskan lebih lanjut. Adverb - adverb berikut adalah beberapa explanatory adverb yang umum digunakan.

a. namely = namanya

b. for example = sebagai contoh, contohnya

c. i.e / that is = yaitu

d. e.g. / for example = sebagai contoh, contohnya

e. viz. / namely = yaitu, adalah, bernama

Keempat, Relative dan Interrogative Adverbs

Ada empat kata yang termasuk relative adverbs yaitu : when, where, why, how (kapan, dimana, mengapa dan bagaimana)

1. Relative adverbs -- adverb jenis ini mengawali adjective clause
2. Interrogative adverbs -- adverbs jenis ini berada pada awal kalimat pertanyaan yang menggunakan WH Question when, where, why dan how. Selain itu, interrogative adverbs juga ada pada kalimat pertanyaan yang dijadikan noun clause.

Contoh :

• We visited the house where a famous poet once lived. = mengawali adjective clause.

• When will he arrived? = mengawali kalimat pertanyaan dengan menggunakan when, where, why dan how.

• I asked when he would arrive? = mengawali noun clause jenis pertanyaan.

Kelima, Exclamatory Adverb

Exclamatory adverb adalah adverb berupa kata HOW yang digunakan pada kalimat exclamation (baca: Jenis Kalimat) dan memiliki makna betapa / sungguh.

Contoh:

How beautifully you are!

How beautiful she is ! = betapa cantiknya dia !!!

http://www.englishindo.com/2011/11/jenis-adverb-2-dilihat-dari-fungsinya.html

http://nurraeni.blogspot.com/2011/03/pengertian-jenis-dan-contoh-adverbial.html

Kemacetan DKI Jakarta dan Solusinya

Kemacetan  adalah situasi atau keadaan tersendatnya atau bahkan terhentinya lalu lintas yang disebabkan oleh banyaknya jumlah kendaraan melebihi kapasitas jalan. Kemacetan banyak terjadi di kota-kota besar, terutamanya yang tidak mempunyai transportasi publik yang baik atau memadai ataupun juga tidak seimbangnya kebutuhan jalan dengan kepadatan penduduk, misalnya Jakarta dan Bangkok.

Kemacetan lalu lintas menjadi permasalahan sehari-hari di Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan dan kota-kota besar lainnya di Indonesia.

Penyebab kemacetan

Kemacetan dapat terjadi karena beberapa alasan:

• Arus yang melewati jalan telah melampaui kapasitas jalan
• Terjadi kecelakaan lalu-lintas sehingga terjadi gangguan kelancaran karena masyarakat yang menonton kejadian kecelakaan atau karena kendaran yang terlibat kecelakaan belum disingkirkan dari jalur lalu lintas,
• Terjadi banjir sehingga kendaraan memperlambat kendaraan
• Ada perbaikan jalan,
• Bagian jalan tertentu yang longsor,
• kemacetan lalu lintas yang disebabkan kepanikan seperti kalau terjadi isyarat sirene tsunami.
• Karena adanya pemakai jalan yang tidak tahu aturan lalu lintas, spt : berjalan lambat di lajur kanan dsb.
• Adanya parkir liar dari sebuah kegiatan.
• Pasar tumpah yang secara tidak langsung memakan badan jalan sehingga pada akhirnya membuat sebuah antrian terhadap sejumlah kendaraan yang akan melewati area tersebut.
• Pengaturan lampu lalu lintas yang bersifat kaku yang tidak mengikuti tinggi rendahnya arus lalu lintas

Dampak negatif kemacetan

Kemacetan lalu lintas memberikan dampak negatif yang besar yang antara lain disebabkan:

• Kerugian waktu, karena kecepatan perjalanan yang rendah
• Pemborosan energi, karena pada kecepatan rendah konsumsi bahan bakar lebih rendah,
• Keausan kendaraan lebih tinggi, karena waktu yang lebih lama untuk jarak yang pendek, radiator tidak berfungsi dengan baik dan penggunaan rem yang lebih tinggi,
• Meningkatkan polusi udara karena pada kecepatan rendah konsumsi energi lebih tinggi, dan mesin tidak beroperasi pada kondisi yang optimal,
• Meningkatkan stress pengguna jalan,
• Mengganggu kelancaran kendaraan darurat seperti ambulans, pemadam kebakaran dalam menjalankan tugasnya

Pemecahan permasalahan kemacetan

Ada beberapa langkah yang bisa dilakukan untuk memecahkan permasalahan kemacetan lalu lintas yang harus dirumuskan dalam suatu rencana yang komprehentip yang biasanya meliputi langkah-langkah sebagai berikut:

Peningkatan kapasitas

Salah satu langkah yang penting dalam memecahkan kemacetan adalah dengan meningkatkan kapasitas jalan/parasarana seperti:

1. Memperlebar jalan, menambah lajur lalu lintas sepanjang hal itu memungkinkan,
2. Merubah sirkulasi lalu lintas menjadi jalan satu arah,
3. Mengurangi konflik dipersimpangan melalui pembatasan arus tertentu, biasanya yang paling dominan membatasi arus belok kanan.
4. Meningkatkan kapasitas persimpangan melalui lampu lalu lintas, persimpangan tidak sebidang/flyover,
5. Mengembangkan inteligent transport sistem.

Keberpihakan kepada angkutan umum

Untuk meningkatkan daya dukung jaringan jalan dengan adalah mengoptimalkan kepada angkutan yang efisien dalam penggunaan ruang jalan antara lain:

1. Pengembangan jaringan pelayanan angkutan umum
2. Pengembangan lajur atau jalur khusus bus ataupun jalan khusus bus yang di Jakarta dikenal sebagai Busway,
3. Pengembangan kereta api kota, yang dikenal sebagai metro di Perancis, Subway di Amerika, MRT di Singapura
4. Subsidi langsung seperti yang diterapkan pada angkutan kota di Transjakarta, Batam ataupun Jogjakarta maupun tidak langsung melalui keringanan pajak kendaraan bermotor, bea masuk kepada angkutan umum,

Pembatasan kendaraan pribadi

Langkah ini biasanya tidak populer tetapi bila kemacetan semakin parah harus dilakukan manajemen lalu lintas yang lebih ekstrem sebagai berikut:

1. Pembatasan penggunaan kendaraan pribadi menuju suatu kawasan tertentu seperti yang direncanakan akan diterapkan di Jakarta melalui Electronic Road Pricing (ERP). ERP berhasil dengan sangat sukses di Singapura, London, Stokholm. Bentuk lain dengan penerapan kebijakan parkir yang dapat dilakukan dengan penerapan tarip parkir yang tinggi di kawasan yang akan dibatasi lalu lintasnya, ataupun pembatasan penyediaan ruang parkir dikawasan yang akan dibatasi lalu lintasnya,
2. Pembatasan pemilikan kendaraan pribadi melalui peningkatan biaya pemilikan kendaraan, pajak bahan bakar, pajak kendaraan bermotor, bea masuk yang tinggi.
3. Pembatasan lalu lintas tertentu memasuki kawasan atau jalan tertentu, seperti diterapkan di Jakarta yang dikenal sebagai kawasan 3 in 1 atau contoh lain pembatasan sepeda motor masuk jalan tol, pembatasan mobil pribadi masuk jalur busway

Ide tentang perpindahan ibu kota dan pembagian daerah (kota) sesuai dengan aktifitas terbesarnya juga mungkin merupakan solusi yang bisa dipertimbangkan, dipikirkan dan direncanakan secara matang. Namun itu merupakan solusi jangka panjang. Yang harus segera dilaksanakan, yaitu bagaimana untuk segera mengatasi kemacetan di Jakarta. Berikut ini, mungkin bisa menjadi solusi dalam mengatasi kemacetan di Jakarta, antara lain:

1. Jalur three in one lebih diperluas wilayahnya dan tidak menggunakan batas waktu.

2. Jalan-jalan yang dilalui busway yang menyebabkan penyempitan badan jalan harus segera diperlebar.

3. Membangun transportasi massal lain, seperti misalnya subway atau monorel

4. Menerapkan usia kendaraan yang layak beroperasi. Ini juga dapat mengurangi polusi.

5. Meningkatkan tarif pajak kendaraan bermotor, khususnya kendaraan roda empat.

6. Mengadakan pelatihan atau seminar kepada supir-supir angkutan umum  tentang keselamatan dan peraturan berlalu lintas.

7. Menegakkan aturan dengan menindak tegas semua pelanggar lalu lintas tanpa kecuali ataupun oknum polisi yang berbuat pungli.

8. Memperbanyak dan terus menerus mengingatkan masyarakat melalui spanduk, brosur, ataupun iklan tentang disiplin berlalu lintas. Baik di media Cetak ataupun media elektronik.

http://www.variant-info.com/component/content/article/46-artikel/91-mengurai-kemacetan-di-jakarta-a-solusinya.html

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemacetan